There have been a great number of influential thinkers that
have contributed to the field of psychology and the current understanding of
human behavior. Although the theories and concepts that each pioneer has added
to this field of study, the theorists behind the ideas are just as interesting
as the contributions he or she has provided to the various branches of
psychology. For the purposes of the current course project, the life and
contributions of Philip Zimbardo will be presented. A review of Zimbardo’s
historical background, such as his early personal life and his college
experiences, as well as the possible roles his early home life, cultural
background, religious views, political activities and views, and his
educational experience and background have played in shaping his theories and
concepts.
Personal
Life
Events that
occur in one’s life have the potential to influence the thoughts, behaviors,
and perceptions, as well as the view an individual has of his or her world
(Simpson, Collins, & Salvatore, 2011). Understanding the influence this
aspect of one’s life can have on the development of a theory is instrumental in
the ability to determine how an individual came up with a concept or
contribution to one’s field. Various aspects, such as early childhood, college
experiences, adult relationships, and even religion all have the potential to
influence one’s outlook on society, how they interact with society, and how
human behavior is interpreted.
Philip Zimbardo was born in 1933 in
New York City to parents who had immigrated to the United States from
Cammarata, Italy (Simons, 2015). As a child growing up in the ghetto section of
New York known as the South Bronx area, a young Zimbardo and his three siblings
had a difficult childhood where they were exposed to harsh conditions, from
people, as well as environmental situations that are not considered to be
nurturing or conducive to healthy child development. The Zimbardo family was
destitute and relied on the professionals in the social services to assist with
care and clothing needs. During his early childhood, Philip Zimbardo
encountered harsh treatment by the individuals who were employed in the social
services that were tasked with providing care for children and families that
were in need (Zimbardo, 2008). This included those that were responsible for
handing out clothes to families and children, as well as healthcare
practitioners.
One of Zimbardo’s earlier memories
of his experience with healthcare providers was with a dentist that provided
services for families on welfare. He recalls that the dentist he was sent to by
social services did not use sufficient Novocain and proceeded to remove several
of Zimbardo’s rotting teeth before any of the numbing action had kicked in,
resulting in excruciating pain (Zimbardo, 2008). Zimbardo’s teeth were not the
only area of his health that required attention from community healthcare
providers, as he was hospitalized for approximately six months when he was five
and six years old in a hospital in New York that was specifically designated
for the care of children whose families were deemed to be in need of financial
assistance. The patients in the hospital where a young Zimbardo received care
treated children who had various contagious diseases, with parents only able to
visit their children for a period of two hours each Sunday (Vernig, 2009).
The treatment that Zimbardo received
while in the care of community health services appears to have shaped his views
on human nature. For example, while hospitalized, the nurses who cared for
Zimbardo and the other sick children treated the patients with care and
compassion, while also providing the patients with hope, even if their
prognoses were poor. During his hospitalization period, it was a time that was
not nearly as advanced as what is currently in practice, as back then, there
was a high death rate of the children at the government-run community hospital
due to it occurring in a pre-penicillin era (Zimbardo, 2008).
Even in the face of bleakness, the
nurses continued to care for their patients. Zimbardo notes that it was during
this time while he was hospitalized that his interest in the importance of and
the role social relationships play in the development and maintenance of human
connections (Vernig, 2009). Perhaps this observation by Zimbardo in the way the
nurses treated the patients may have helped to expand his understanding of the
role both hope and encouragement could potentially play in the lives of others,
and in a greater aspect, how behavior can be affected by one’s surroundings,
including the people that are in the environment.
The College Years
Zimbardo
attended James Monroe High School, where one of his classmates was Stanley
Milgram, who would later go on to conduct some controversial and influential
studies and would share some similarities with Zimbardo’s experiments on human
behavior. After graduating from high school, Zimbardo attended Brooklyn
College, where he earned his undergraduate degree in a triple major, which
consisted of psychology, anthropology, and sociology. His early experience of
pursuing his studies in psychology could have led to a very different outcome
for the now influential psychologist, as Zimbardo received a C in an
introduction to psychology course, which may cause some students to rethink
their academic and career goals (Zimbardo, 2008). However, this was not the
case for Zimbardo, as he kept taking courses in each of his majors, reigniting
his love for psychology when he enrolled in an experimental psychology course
at the behest of one of his friends who needed a laboratory partner (Vernig,
2009).
Upon
graduating from Brooklyn College, Zimbardo attended Yale University, where he
graduated with his doctorate degree in psychology in 1959. While he was a
student at Yale University, Zimbardo developed some very strong relationships
with both his fellow students, as well as his advisor. Neal Miller, Zimbardo’s
advisor at Yale University saw the potential and drive that Zimbardo possessed
in the field of psychology and the two co-authored a journal article on the
topic of the drive of hunger and the role it plays in behavior (Zimbardo &
Miller, 1958). Miller, in addition to being an advisor at Yale University, was
also an accomplished experimental psychologist, who was a pioneer in the
exploration of the various applications of biofeedback. The connection between
the brain and the body is the main focus of biofeedback, with additional focus
on the role the brain plays in the behavior of an individual. Miller also
worked on studies that aimed to identify the sources of various drives,
including fear and curiosity, as well as the use of approach and avoidance
behavior in conflicts (Miller, 1944).
The various
experiences that Zimbardo had while attending college, including the
connections that he made with other influential leaders in the field of
psychology may certainly have played a role in the different experiments and
studies that he would later conduct in an attempt to better understand human
behavior. The fact that Zimbardo was the first one in his family to attend college
may have served, at least slightly, as the motivation behind him staying in
school despite his early experience, which could have potentially steered
Zimbardo down a completely different path if he had let his less than stellar
grade in an introductory course thwart his psychology-related goals.
The ability for Zimbardo to continue
on to Yale University, work with influential peers such as Miller, helped to
provide the additional supportive environment that may have contributed to
Zimbardo’s ability to thrive, much like the treatment he received as a sickly
child from the nurses who were charged with caring for many children who had
bleak outlooks. The close relationship that Zimbardo had with his advisor may
have also played a role in the aspects of psychology that Zimbardo would later
study, particularly in regards to the role one’s environment and internal
drives have in the behavior of an individual.
Family
While still a student at Yale
University, Zimbardo married his first wife, Rose Abdelnour. The two married in
1957 and had one child together. Abdelnour was an accomplished professor
herself in English literature, holding prestigious positions as a professor at
City College of New York, the State University of New York at Stony Brook, and
the University of San Francisco. Perhaps the love of psychology and human
behavior that Zimbardo exudes was passed onto his son, who pursued a similar
educational and professional path, but in the counseling field as a marriage
and family therapist. Zimbardo and Abdelnour parted ways, divorcing in 1972.
Later that same year, Zimbardo married his second, and current, wife Christina
Maslach, who would later play a pivotal role in Zimbardo’s seminal project, the
Stanford Prison Experiment. The union brought together two psychology
researchers, with Maslach focusing more on social and health psychology topics,
as well as contributing significantly to the understanding of job burnout
(Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001).
The
partners that Zimbardo has had as an adult appears to have been very supportive
and provide a source of encouragement, which are often necessary when
conducting research. Although his first wife, who passed away in 2015 was a
successful professor and author on topics that were closely related to English
literature due to the interests and educational background, the two had a
relationship that, on the outside at least, appears to have been quite
supportive. The bond between Zimbardo and Maslach may be a better match due to
the shared connection they have in regards to psychology, with the shared focus
on behavior and the role one’s environment can play in the mental and physical
health of an individual may help to foster Zimbardo’s drive to gain a greater
understanding of human behavior. After all, it was Maslach’s input during a
visit to the Stanford Prison Experiment facility that ultimately led to an
early termination of the study, which would suggest that there was a high level
of respect for one another and a shared understanding of human interaction,
both inside and away from the experiment setting.
Religion
As a child of Italian immigrants,
Zimbardo was raised as a religious Catholic in New York. However, he has noted
that while growing up, he often pondered about the existence of a higher being,
particularly when it came to praying (Zimbardo, 2007). As an adult, his views
on religion have evolved, and currently identifies as an atheist. He has noted
that his research on how otherwise good people can commit atrocious acts may
have influenced his current outlook on religion. Additionally, his religious
beliefs may play a role in his theories regarding human behavior, which may not
be as clear cut as good and evil in many religions.
The Stanford Prison Experiment
Considered to be Zimbardo’s seminal
work and one of the most important studies that have been conducted in the
field of psychology, the Stanford Prison Experiment was conducted in August of
1971. The participants in the study were “arrested” and taken by police car to
the Stanford University campus where the study was being conducted (Zimbardo,
2007). The participants were randomly assigned to roles designated as either a
prison guard or a prisoner. It is important to note that none of the
participants had actually committed any crimes or broken any laws. The
participants who were randomly assigned as prisoners were led, blindfolded,
down a flight of stairs to a room that was serving as the prison, where they
were issued smocks to wear for the duration of the study. One of the purposes
of the smocks was a form of deindividualization , as the names of the
participants who were serving as prisoners were replaced with four digit
numbers. The study participants who were playing the role of prison guard were
outfitted with tan uniforms and, what would turn out to be one of the more
important items, reflective sunglasses.
Within a
matter of days, the environment turned dangerous, with the prison guards
imposing harsh punishments on the participant prisoners, which resulted in both
physical and emotional distress. These effects, which were observed by
Zimbardo’s now wife Maslach, led to the premature termination of the experiment
(Zimbardo, 2007). Maslach had been called into the study to conduct interviews
with the study participants, when she observed the way that the “prisoners”
were being treated by the guards, as if they had actually committed crimes. Maslach
was the only individual to raise concerns, out of more than 50 who had observed
the conditions and treatments that the guards had come up with to impose upon
the prisoners. Her visit to the facility where the experiment was taking place
cut a study that was initially going to last for two weeks, down to six days.
The results
of the study indicated that situational factors, such as the environment and
social influences, can affect the behavior of an individual, thus causing good
people to engage in behavior that they wouldn’t otherwise. The events that
transpired during the Stanford Prison Experiment also have helped to highlight
the role that ethics committees can play in the protection of human subjects
when it comes to studies and research endeavors (Tolich, 2014). When reviewing
Zimbardo’s childhood and experiences while attending college, it is easy to
identify the key events and memories that may have contributed to the design
and purpose of this particular study. A young Zimbardo had learned how to read
people and situations, which may have helped him to understand the concepts of
power, impression management, and impression formation (Vernig, 2009). The
awareness of the subtle nuances that are involved in human behavior appears to
have been a lifelong influence when it comes to Zimbardo’s view of behavior and
situational factors.
One of the
most interesting events associated with The Stanford Prison Experiment is what
happened in the months following the premature termination of the study. Prisoners
who were incarcerated across the United States were observed to be engaged in
violent behavior, including an escape attempt at the San Quentin prison in the
San Francisco Bay Area region of California (Zimbardo, 2007). The following
month, riots broke out at Attica Prison, located in New York, which included
taking guards hostage. The events at Attica Prison resulted in several deaths,
both guards and prisoners.
Zimbardo noted that the underlying
aspect that sparked many of these violent incidents were sparked due to the
prisoners wanting to be treated like human beings, rather than feeling
dehumanized and the guards and surroundings instilling feelings of helplessness
in the prisoners (Zimbardo, 1972). The events that Zimbardo had observed during
the six days of the Stanford Prison Experiment helped him to identify the same
characteristics in actual prisoners, which also appear to be similar to
Zimbardo’s childhood experiences in observing human behavior and the role
hopelessness can play in the mental and physical health of an individual. Just
like the behavior of the study participants who were selected to be guards in
the Stanford Prison Experiment, it is unlikely that the guards set out to treat
the prisoners inhumanely, but rather it could be a case of the situational
perspective influencing the behavior of otherwise good people.
Time Perspective
Another one of Zimbardo’s projects
is on time perspective. According to his theory, people tend to get “stuck” at
various times, which are constructed of one’s mind. These include the past,
present, or are tied to the ambitions associated with future goals (Zimbardo
& Boyd, 1999). By knowing how an individual will react during a given
event, it may help to predict how the person will react in a variety of life
domains, including educational and career success, as well as the quality of
life and levels of happiness and enjoyment an individual is able to achieve
(Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999).
Current
Projects
Many of
Zimbardo’s previous projects and gleanings from research that he has conducted
have helped to shape the current programs that he is working diligently on with
other researchers in the field of psychology. He has been able to take what he
has learned from experiments, such as the Stanford Prison Experiment, and set
off on new endeavors in an attempt to better understand human behavior, as well
as explain how the situation and surrounding of an individual, including the
people in one’s environment can affect the life of a person.
The Shyness Clinic
Shyness, which Zimbardo has referred
to as a silent prison, is the focus of one of his current projects (Zimbardo,
Pilkonis, & Norwood, 1977). Characterized by self-blame,
self-consciousness, resentment, and feelings of shame, shyness can impact the
quality of life experienced by an individual (Henderson & Zimbardo, 2003).
The Shyness Clinic was originally located at Stanford University, was moved
recently to the clinical setting located at the Pacific Graduate School of
Psychology, in Palo Alto. The clinic focuses on different ways that students
can work on improving their level of social functioning.
Some of the methods may appear
similar to those that are utilized in traditional counseling interventions,
while other aspects focus on role-playing. The program provides guidance for
students who are chronically shy, with a goal of helping them to develop social
skills through the relationships they build with the therapists who work in the
Shyness Clinic. Through addressing the various situations that students
identify as challenging or that they avoid due to their shyness, the students
can improve their social functioning through removing their self-imposed
restraints that prevent them from enjoying life.
The idea
for developing the Shyness Clinic came from Zimbardo’s observations of the behavior
that were present in both the guards and prisoners during his Stanford Prison
Experiment. He notes that the mentalities of both sets of participants are
present in everyone, with the duality of neuroticism and shyness, having the
ability to affect one’s behavior (Zimbardo et al., 1977). The behavior
exhibited by the shy person is a form of a vulnerability that stems from the
central tenets of the human condition, namely the desire for acceptance,
approval, and affiliation with peers, and on a greater level, society
(Zimbardo, 1986).
The Lucifer Effect
Influenced
by what Zimbardo observed during his Stanford Prison Experiment, specifically
the way typically good people can engage in behavior that is harmful to
themselves or others, has helped to give rise to what Zimbardo terms the Lucifer
effect. In addition to the behaviors that occurred during the Stanford Prison
Experiment, Zimbardo has been able to study a variety of environments where
individuals exhibited similar behavior. One of the commonalities that appear to
be present in the various environments is that the situational or systematic
forces that may have helped to contribute to an observed behavior are often
overlooked, in favor of blaming the individual for his or her actions
(Zimbardo, 2007).
Using what he has learned about
human behavior through his various experiments, Zimbardo has testified at the
trials of soldiers who had been charged with crimes, such as prisoner abuse and
torture, while the military members were stationed at Abu Ghraib prison. The
book penned by Zimbardo titled The
Lucifer Effect, focuses on the fundamental question of human nature,
specifically the ability for ordinary people perpetrate evil acts (Zimbardo,
2007). It is rather easy to identify the role that Zimbardo’s early life,
observing the behavior of the neighborhood boys acting “tough” in order to fit
in, as well as what he learned through conducting the Stanford Prison
Experiment, have had on the development of the Lucifer effect view of human
behavior.
The Social Intensity Syndrome (SIS)
Another project that has been
influenced by what Zimbardo has learned about human behavior and the role
social relationships play in the lives of individuals is the development of the
Social Intensity Syndrome, or SIS. According to Zimbardo, Ferraras, and
Brunskill (2015), socialization plays a significant role in the lives of both
active duty and military veterans. Zimbardo et al. (2015) have identified
several aspects that can potentially influence the life of a military member,
and have developed a scale to measure the positive and negative effects that a
military culture may have while serving on active duty, as well as after
separation.
The
reintegration process after separating from the military can be a difficult
experience for soldiers, particularly if they were deployed to war zones. Some
veterans become “stuck” in the transition process, which is what Zimbardo et
al. (2015) has termed the social intensity syndrome. Research conducted on the
topic suggests that the emphasis of stunted emotion and self-sacrifice for the
greater good of the military unit and/or mission that is typical of the
military culture may be the root cause of challenges faced by soldiers during
the transition phase between active duty and civilian lives (Zimbardo et al.,
2015).
The Heroic Imagination Project
Perhaps
influenced by witnessing all of the dangerous and inhumane behavior that has
occurred not only in his experiments, but also in society, one of Zimbardo’s
most recent endeavors is the Heroic Imagination Project, or HIP, which is a
nonprofit organization aimed at teaching members of society to take effective
action in a variety of difficult situations (Heroic Imagination Project, 2015).
Some areas that the foundation focuses on include the bystander effect,
adaptive attributions, mindset, situational awareness, social conformity, and
prejudice and group perception (HIP, 2015). By identifying the negative forms
of social influence, Zimbardo has now switched his focus to gain a better
understanding of heroism, as well as the psychology associated with both
personal and social growth. According to Zimbardo, Breckenridge, and Moghaddam
(2015), heroism is not relegated to the physical acts, but the courage that is
required to speak up against injustices and to help support the protection of
human rights.
Observations
by Zimbardo (2011), such as the uprisings that have occurred across the Middle
East, as well as the protests that occur here in the United States, show that
greater numbers of individuals within a global society have fortified their
collective moral courage to speak out against social injustices. What he has
observed on the news, with people taking action in response to inhumane
treatment of their fellow humans, appears to be similar to the actions that his
wife took when she visited the facility where the Stanford Prison Experiment
was being conducted; Maslach had the courage to speak up about what she was
witnessing in regards to the way the “prisoners” were being treated by the “guards”
in the study.
Conclusion
The
personal experiences of an individual have the potential to influence his or
her outlook, thoughts, behaviors, actions, and the place one occupies in the
society. When it comes to individuals within the realm of the field of
psychology, these experiences certainly appear to shape the development of
concepts or ideas about human behavior. This certainly appears to be the case
when evaluating Zimbardo’s life, various studies and experiments that he has
been part of, as well as his current endeavors. He has been able to take what
he observed as a child of immigrant parents, his experiences while being
hospitalized in a facility for the children of poor families, and the lessons
gained through his numerous studies and experiences while pursuing his academic
goals, all of which has culminated in Zimbardo’s impressive body of work. The
future directions of his projects appear to be closely related to the core
focus of much of his work and experiences, taking what he has learned about
human behavior, specifically negative social behavior, and utilizing the same
theory of situational forces to help society to nurture the good in people. His
experiences and body of work makes Zimbardo one of the most influential people
in the field of psychology.
** References Available Upon Request **
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